FUNCTION Protein kinase involved in the regulation of transcription. Member of the cyclin-dependent kinase pair (CDK9/cyclin-T) complex, also called positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb), which facilitates the transition from abortive to productive elongation by phosphorylating the CTD (C-terminal domain) of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) POLR2A, SUPT5H and RDBP. This complex is inactive when in the 7SK snRNP complex form. Phosphorylates EP300, MYOD1, RPB1/POLR2A and AR, and the negative elongation factors DSIF and NELF. Regulates cytokine inducible transcription networks by facilitating promoter recognition of target transcription factors (e.g. TNF-inducible RELA/p65 activation and IL-6-inducible STAT3 signaling). Promotes RNA synthesis in genetic programs for cell growth, differentiation and viral pathogenesis. P-TEFb is also involved in cotranscriptional histone modification, mRNA processing and mRNA export. Modulates a complex network of chromatin modifications including histone H2B monoubiquitination (H2Bub1), H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) and H3K36me3; integrates phosphorylation during transcription with chromatin modifications to control co-transcriptional histone mRNA processing. The CDK9/cyclin-K complex has also a kinase activity towards CTD of RNAP II and can substitute for CDK9/cyclin-T P-TEFb in vitro. Replication stress response protein; the CDK9/cyclin-K complex is required for genome integrity maintenance, by promoting cell cycle recovery from replication arrest and limiting single-stranded DNA amount in response to replication stress, thus reducing the breakdown of stalled replication forks and avoiding DNA damage. In addition, probable function in DNA repair of isoform 2 via interaction with KU70/XRCC6. Promotes cardiac myocyte enlargement. RPB1/POLR2A phosphorylation on 'Ser-2' in CTD activates transcription. AR phosphorylation modulates AR transcription factor promoter selectivity and cell growth. DSIF and NELF phosphorylation promotes transcription by inhibiting their negative effect. The phosphorylation of MYOD1 enhances its transcriptional activity and thus promotes muscle differentiation.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY ATP + a protein = ADP + a phosphoprotein.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY ATP + [DNA-directed RNA polymerase] = ADP + [DNA-directed RNA polymerase] phosphate.ENZYME REGULATION Inhibited by CDKI-71, CR8, GPC-286199, AG-024322, flavopiridol (alvocidib), RBG-286147, anilinopyrimidine 32, arylazopyrazole 31b, indirubin 3'-monoxime, meriolin 3,P276-00, olomoucine II, pyrazolotriazine, meriolin, variolin, thiazolyl-pyrimidine, thiazolyl-pyrimidine, indirubin-30-monoxime, ZK 304709, AG-012986, AT7519, R547, RGB-286638, imidazole pyrimidine, EXEL-3700, EXEL-8647, 5,6-dichloro-1-b-ribofur-anosyl-benzimidazole (DRB), P276-00, roscovitine (seliciclib, CYC202) and SNS-032 (BMS-387032). Activation by Thr-186 phosphorylation is calcium Ca(2+) signaling pathway-dependent; actively inactivated by dephosphorylation mediated by PPP1CA, PPM1A and PPM1B. Reversibly repressed by acetylation at Lys-44 and Lys-48.SUBUNIT Associates with CCNT1/cyclin-T1, CCNT2/cyclin-T2 (isoform A and isoform B) or CCNK/cyclin-K to form active P-TEFb. P-TEFb forms a complex with AFF4/AF5Q31 and is part of the super elongation complex (SEC). Component of a complex which is composed of at least 5 members: HTATSF1/Tat-SF1, P-TEFb complex, RNA pol II, SUPT5H, and NCL/nucleolin. Associates with UBR5 and forms a transcription regulatory complex composed of CDK9, RNAP II, UBR5 and TFIIS/TCEA1 that can stimulate target gene transcription (e.g. gamma fibrinogen/FGG) by recruiting their promoters. Component of the 7SK snRNP inactive complex which is composed of at least 8 members: P-TEFb (composed of CDK9 and CCNT1/cyclin-T1), HEXIM1, HEXIM2, LARP7, BCDIN3, SART3 proteins and 7SK and U6 snRNAs. This inactive 7SK snRNP complex can also interact with NCOR1 and HDAC3, probably to regulate CDK9 acetylation. Release of P-TEFb from P-TEFb/7SK snRNP complex requires both PP2B to transduce calcium Ca(2+) signaling in response to stimuli (e.g. UV or hexamethylene bisacetamide (HMBA)), and PPP1CA to dephosphorylate Thr-186. This released P-TEFb remains inactive in the preinitiation complex with BRD4 until new Thr-186 phosphorylation occurs after the synthesis of a short RNA. Binds to BRD4, probably to target chromatin binding. Interacts with the acidic/proline-rich region of HIV-1 and HIV-2 Tat via T-loop region, and is thus required for HIV to hijack host transcription machinery during its replication through cooperative binding to viral TAR RNA. Interacts with activated nuclear STAT3 and RELA/p65. Binds to AR and MYOD1. Forms a complex composed of CDK9, CCNT1/cyclin-T1, EP300 and GATA4 that stimulates hypertrophy in cardiomyocytes. Isoform 3 binds to KU70/XRCC6.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Ubiquitous.INDUCTION By replication stress, in chromatin. Probably degraded by the proteasome upon Thr-186 dephosphorylation.PTM Autophosphorylation at Thr-186, Ser-347, Thr-350, Ser-353, Thr-354 and Ser-357 triggers kinase activity by promoting cyclin and substrate binding (e.g. HIV TAT) upon conformational changes. Thr-186 phosphorylation requires the calcium Ca(2+) signaling pathway, including CaMK1D and calmodulin. This inhibition is relieved by Thr-29 dephosphorylation. However, phosphorylation at Thr-29 is inhibitory within the HIV transcription initiation complex. Phosphorylation at Ser-175 inhibits kinase activity. Can be phosphorylated on either Thr-362 or Thr-363 but not on both simultaneously (PubMed:18566585).PTM Dephosphorylation of Thr-186 by PPM1A and PPM1B blocks CDK9 activity and may lead to CDK9 proteasomal degradation. However, PPP1CA-mediated Thr-186 dephosphorylation is required to release P-TEFb from its inactive P-TEFb/7SK snRNP complex. Dephosphorylation of C-terminus Thr and Ser residues by protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) triggers CDK9 activity, contributing to the activation of HIV-1 transcription.PTM N6-acetylation of Lys-44 by CBP/p300 promotes kinase activity, whereas acetylation of both Lys-44 and Lys-48 mediated by PCAF/KAT2B and GCN5/KAT2A reduces kinase activity. The acetylated form associates with PML bodies in the nuclear matrix and with the transcriptionally silent HIV-1 genome; deacetylated upon transcription stimulation.PTM Polyubiquitinated and thus activated by UBR5. This ubiquitination is promoted by TFIIS/TCEA1 and favors 'Ser-2' phosphorylation of RPB1/POLR2A CTD.DISEASE Note=Chronic activation of CDK9 causes cardiac myocyte enlargement leading to cardiac hypertrophy, and confers predisposition to heart failure.MISCELLANEOUS CDK9 inhibition contributes to the anticancer activity of most CDK inhibitors under clinical investigation (PubMed:18423896 and PubMed:21779453). As a retroviruses target during the hijack of host transcription (e.g. HIV), CDK9 inhibitors might become specific antiretroviral agents (PubMed:18423896). May be a target for cardiac hypertrophy future treatments (PubMed:19757441 and PubMed:18423896). May also be a target in anti-inflammatory therapy in innate immunity and systemic inflammation (PubMed:18728388).SIMILARITY Belongs to the protein kinase superfamily. CMGC Ser/Thr protein kinase family. CDC2/CDKX subfamily.SIMILARITY Contains 1 protein kinase domain.
FUNCTION Component of the ESCRT-I complex, a regulator of vesicular trafficking process. Required for the sorting of endocytic ubiquitinated cargos into multivesicular bodies. May be involved in cell growth and differentiation.SUBUNIT Component of the ESCRT-I complex (endosomal sorting complex required for transport I) which consists of TSG101, VPS28, a VPS37 protein (VPS37A to -D) and MVB12A or MVB12B in a 1:1:1:1 stoechiometry. Interacts with TSG101, VPS28, MVB12A and MVB12B. Interacts with HGS and STAM2. Interacts with CEP55.PTM Phosphorylated by TBK1.SIMILARITY Belongs to the VPS37 family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 VPS37 C-terminal domain.
FUNCTION Essential component of the NELF complex, a complex that negatively regulates the elongation of transcription by RNA polymerase II. The NELF complex, which acts via an association with the DSIF complex and causes transcriptional pausing, is counteracted by the P-TEFb kinase complex.SUBUNIT The NELF complex is composed of NELFA, NELFB, NELFCD (isoform NELF-C or isoform NELF-D) and NELFE.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Expressed in heart, brain, lung, placenta, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney and pancreas.DOMAIN The RRM domain interacts with RNA, and is essential for NELF complex function. It is however not required for the NELF complex formation.PTM Sumoylated.SIMILARITY Belongs to the RRM NELF-E family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 RRM (RNA recognition motif) domain.
Membrane binding and targetting of GAG proteins
One of the mysteries of Gag protein involvement in HIV virion assembly is how the proteins are targeted to the proper membrane for budding. Infectious retroviruses do not bud from all of the available membrane surfaces within an infected cell, but primarily from the plasma membrane, which constitutes a small proportion of the total membrane surface in most cells. In polarized cells, the sites of budding are further restricted to the basolateral membrane.
Transcription initiation protein SPT4 homolog 1
Wolf-Hirshhorn syndrome candidate 2 protein
FUNCTION The surface protein gp120 (SU) attaches the virus to the host lymphoid cell by binding to the primary receptor CD4. This interaction induces a structural rearrangement creating a high affinity binding site for a chemokine coreceptor like CXCR4 and/or CCR5. This peculiar 2 stage receptor-interaction strategy allows gp120 to maintain the highly conserved coreceptor-binding site in a cryptic conformation, protected from neutralizing antibodies. Since CD4 also displays a binding site for the disulfide-isomerase P4HB/PDI, a P4HB/PDI-CD4-CXCR4-gp120 complex may form. In that complex, P4HB/PDI could reach and reduce gp120 disulfide bonds, causing major conformational changes in gp120. TXN, another PDI family member could also be involved in disulfide rearrangements in Env during fusion. These changes are transmitted to the transmembrane protein gp41 and are thought to activate its fusogenic potential by unmasking its fusion peptide.FUNCTION The surface protein gp120 is a ligand for CD209/DC-SIGN and CLEC4M/DC-SIGNR, which are respectively found on dendritic cells (DCs), and on endothelial cells of liver sinusoids and lymph node sinuses. These interactions allow capture of viral particles at mucosal surfaces by these cells and subsequent transmission to permissive cells. DCs are professional antigen presenting cells, critical for host immunity by inducing specific immune responses against a broad variety of pathogens. They act as sentinels in various tissues where they take up antigen, process it, and present it to T-cells following migration to lymphoid organs. HIV subverts the migration properties of dendritic cells to gain access to CD4+ T-cells in lymph nodes. Virus transmission to permissive T-cells occurs either in trans (without DCs infection, through viral capture and transmission), or in cis (following DCs productive infection, through the usual CD4-gp120 interaction), thereby inducing a robust infection. In trans infection, bound virions remain infectious over days and it is proposed that they are not degraded, but protected in non-lysosomal acidic organelles within the DCs close to the cell membrane thus contributing to the viral infectious potential during DCs' migration from the periphery to the lymphoid tissues. On arrival at lymphoid tissues, intact virions recycle back to DCs' cell surface allowing virus transmission to CD4+ T-cells. Virion capture also seems to lead to MHC-II-restricted viral antigen presentation, and probably to the activation of HIV-specific CD4+ cells.FUNCTION The transmembrane protein gp41 (TM) acts as a class I viral fusion protein. Under the current model, the protein has at least 3 conformational states: pre-fusion native state, pre-hairpin intermediate state, and post-fusion hairpin state. During fusion of viral and target intracellular membranes, the coiled coil regions (heptad repeats) assume a trimer-of-hairpins structure, positioning the fusion peptide in close proximity to the C-terminal region of the ectodomain. The formation of this structure appears to drive apposition and subsequent fusion of viral and target cell membranes. Complete fusion occurs in host cell endosomes and is dynamin-dependent, however some lipid transfer might occur at the plasma membrane. The virus undergoes clathrin-dependent internalization long before endosomal fusion, thus minimizing the surface exposure of conserved viral epitopes during fusion and reducing the efficacy of inhibitors targeting these epitopes. Membranes fusion leads to delivery of the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm.FUNCTION The gp120-gp41 heterodimer seems to contribute to T-cell depletion during HIV-1 infection. The envelope glycoproteins expressed on the surface of infected cells induce apoptosis through an interaction with uninfected cells expressing the receptor (CD4) and the coreceptors CXCR4 or CCR5. This type of bystander killing may be obtained by at least three distinct mechanisms. First, the interaction between the 2 cells can induce cellular fusion followed by nuclear fusion within the syncytium. Syncytia are condemned to die from apoptosis. Second, the 2 interacting cells may not fuse entirely and simply exchange plasma membrane lipids, after a sort of hemifusion process, followed by rapid death. Third, it is possible that virus-infected cells, on the point of undergoing apoptosis, fuse with CD4-expressing cells, in which case apoptosis is rapidly transmitted from one cell to the other and thus occurs in a sort of contagious fashion.FUNCTION The gp120-gp41 heterodimer allows rapid transcytosis of the virus through CD4 negative cells such as simple epithelial monolayers of the intestinal, rectal and endocervical epithelial barriers. Both gp120 and gp41 specifically recognize glycosphingolipids galactosyl-ceramide (GalCer) or 3' sulfo-galactosyl-ceramide (GalS) present in the lipid rafts structures of epithelial cells. Binding to these alternative receptors allows the rapid transcytosis of the virus through the epithelial cells. This transcytotic vesicle-mediated transport of virions from the apical side to the basolateral side of the epithelial cells does not involve infection of the cells themselves.SUBUNIT The mature envelope protein (Env) consists of a homotrimer of non-covalently associated gp120-gp41 heterodimers. The resulting complex protrudes from the virus surface as a spike. There seems to be as few as 10 spikes on the average virion. Surface protein gp120 interacts with human CD4, CCR5 and CXCR4, to form a P4HB/PDI-CD4-CXCR4-gp120 complex. Gp120 also interacts with the C-type lectins CD209/DC-SIGN and CLEC4M/DC-SIGNR (collectively referred to as DC-SIGN(R)). Gp120 and gp41 interact with GalCer. Gp120 interacts with human ITGA4/ITGB7 complex; on CD4+ T-cells, this interaction results in rapid activation of integrin ITGAL/LFA-1, which facilitate efficient cell-to-cell spreading of HIV-1. Gp120 interacts with cell-associated heparan sulfate; this interaction increases virus infectivity on permissive cells and may be involved in infection of CD4- cells.DOMAIN The YXXL motif is involved in determining the exact site of viral release at the surface of infected mononuclear cells and promotes endocytosis. YXXL and di-leucine endocytosis motifs interact directly or indirectly with the clathrin adapter complexes, opperate independently, and their activities are not additive.DOMAIN The CD4-binding region is targeted by the antibody b12.DOMAIN The membrane proximal external region (MPER) present in gp41 is a tryptophan-rich region recognized by the antibodies 2F5, Z13, and 4E10. MPER seems to play a role in fusion.DOMAIN Some of the most genetically diverse regions of the viral genome are present in Env. They are called variable regions 1 through 5 (V1 through V5). Coreceptor usage of gp120 is determined mainly by the primary structure of the third variable region (V3) in the outer domain of gp120. The sequence of V3 determines which coreceptor, CCR5 and/or CXCR4 (corresponding to R5/macrophage, X4/T cell and R5X4/T cell and macrophage tropism), is used to trigger the fusion potential of the Env complex, and hence which cells the virus can infect. Binding to CCR5 involves a region adjacent in addition to V3.MISCELLANEOUS Inhibitors targeting HIV-1 viral envelope proteins are used as antiretroviral drugs. Attachment of virions to the cell surface via non-specific interactions and CD4 binding can be blocked by inhibitors that include cyanovirin-N, cyclotriazadisulfonamide analogs, PRO 2000, TNX 355 and PRO 542. In addition, BMS 806 can block CD4-induced conformational changes. Env interactions with the coreceptor molecules can be targeted by CCR5 antagonists including SCH-D, maraviroc (UK 427857) and aplaviroc (GW 873140), and the CXCR4 antagonist AMD 070. Fusion of viral and cellular membranes can be inhibited by peptides such as enfuvirtide and tifuvirtide (T 1249). Resistance to inhibitors associated with mutations in Env are observed. Most of the time, single mutations confer only a modest reduction in drug susceptibility. Combination of several mutations is usually required to develop a high-level drug resistance.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).
Transcription initiation factor IIF, beta subunit
Transcription initiation factor IIF, alpha subunit
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 13.3 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 19 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 16 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 7.6 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 7.6 kDa polypeptide (EC 2.7.7.6) (RPB10) (RPB7.6)
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 33 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 140 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 14.5 kDa polypeptide
SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits. RPB4 and RPB7 form a subcomplex that protrudes from the 10-subunit Pol II core complex.SIMILARITY Belongs to the eukaryotic RPB4 RNA polymerase subunit family.
Retroviral DNA integration: reaction pathway and critical intermediates
RNA Pol II (Ser2 phosphorylated) largest subunit
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II largest subunit
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 23 kDa polypeptide (EC 2.7.7.6) (RPB25) (XAP4) (RPB5)
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 23 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerases I, II, and III 7.0 kDa polypeptide
HIV cDNA integration: molecular biology and inhibitor development
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 14.4 kDa polypeptide (EC 2.7.7.6) (RPB6) (RPB14.4)
DNA-directed RNA polymerase II 14.4 kDa polypeptide
DNA-directed RNA polymerases I, II, and III 17.1 kDa polypeptide
The biology and enzymology of protein N-myristoylation
The ups and downs of gene expression and retroviral DNA integration
FUNCTION Matrix protein p17 targets Gag and Gag-Pol polyproteins to the plasma membrane via a multipartite membrane binding signal, that includes its myristoylated N-terminus. Also mediates nuclear localization of the preintegration complex. Implicated in the release from host cell mediated by Vpu.FUNCTION Capsid protein p24 forms the conical core of the virus that encapsulates the genomic RNA-nucleocapsid complex.FUNCTION Nucleocapsid protein p7 encapsulates and protects viral dimeric unspliced (genomic) RNA. Binds these RNAs through its zinc fingers.PTM Capsid protein p24 is phosphorylated.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).SIMILARITY Belongs to the primate lentivirus group gag polyprotein family.SIMILARITY Contains 2 CCHC-type zinc fingers.
Human N-myristoyltransferases form stable complexes with lentiviral nef and other viral and cellular substrate proteins
FUNCTION Gag-Pol polyprotein and Gag polyprotein may regulate their own translation, by the binding genomic RNA in the 5'-UTR. At low concentration, Gag-Pol and Gag would promote translation, whereas at high concentration, the polyproteins encapsidate genomic RNA and then shutt off translation.FUNCTION Matrix protein p17 has two main functions: in infected cell, it targets Gag and Gag-pol polyproteins to the plasma membrane via a multipartite membrane-binding signal, that includes its myristoylated N-terminus. The second function is to play a role in nuclear localization of the viral genome at the very start of cell infection. Matrix protein is the part of the pre-integration complex. It binds in the cytoplasm the human BAF protein which prevent autointegration of the viral genome, and might be included in virions at the ration of zero to 3 BAF dimer per virion. The myristoylation signal and the NLS thus exert conflicting influences its subcellular localization. The key regulation of these motifs might be phosphorylation of a portion of MA molecules on the C-terminal tyrosine at the time of virus maturation, by virion-associated cellular tyrosine kinase. Implicated in the release from host cell mediated by Vpu.FUNCTION Capsid protein p24 forms the conical core that encapsulates the genomic RNA-nucleocapsid complex in the virion. Most core are conical, with only 7% tubular. The core is constituted by capsid protein hexamer subunits. The core is disassembled soon after virion entry. Interaction with human PPIA/CYPA protects the virus from restriction by human TRIM5-alpha and from an unknown antiviral activity in human cells. This capsid restriction by TRIM5 is one of the factors which restricts HIV-1 to the human species.FUNCTION Nucleocapsid protein p7 encapsulates and protects viral dimeric unspliced (genomic) RNA. Binds these RNAs through its zinc fingers. Facilitates rearangement of nucleic acid secondary structure during retrotranscription of genomic RNA. This capability is referred to as nucleic acid chaperone activity.FUNCTION Reverse transcriptase/ribonuclease H (RT) is a multifunctional enzyme that converts the viral RNA genome into dsDNA in the cytoplasm, shortly after virus entry into the cell. This enzyme displays a DNA polymerase activity that can copy either DNA or RNA templates, and a ribonuclease H (RNase H) activity that cleaves the RNA strand of RNA-DNA heteroduplexes in a partially processive 3' to 5' endonucleasic mode. Conversion of viral genomic RNA into dsDNA requires many steps. A tRNA(3)-Lys binds to the primer-binding site (PBS) situated at the 5'-end of the viral RNA. RT uses the 3' end of the tRNA primer to perform a short round of RNA-dependent minus-strand DNA synthesis. The reading proceeds through the U5 region and ends after the repeated (R) region which is present at both ends of viral RNA. The portion of the RNA-DNA heteroduplex is digested by the RNase H, resulting in a ssDNA product attached to the tRNA primer. This ssDNA/tRNA hybridizes with the identical R region situated at the 3' end of viral RNA. This template exchange, known as minus-strand DNA strong stop transfer, can be either intra- or intermolecular. RT uses the 3' end of this newly synthesized short ssDNA to perform the RNA-dependent minus-strand DNA synthesis of the whole template. RNase H digests the RNA template except for two polypurine tracts (PPTs) situated at the 5'-end and near the center of the genome. It is not clear if both polymerase and RNase H activities are simultaneous. RNase H probably can proceed both in a polymerase-dependent (RNA cut into small fragments by the same RT performing DNA synthesis) and a polymerase-independent mode (cleavage of remaining RNA fragments by free RTs). Secondly, RT performs DNA-directed plus-strand DNA synthesis using the PPTs that have not been removed by RNase H as primers. PPTs and tRNA primers are then removed by RNase H. The 3' and 5' ssDNA PBS regions hybridize to form a circular dsDNA intermediate. Strand displacement synthesis by RT to the PBS and PPT ends produces a blunt ended, linear dsDNA copy of the viral genome that includes long terminal repeats (LTRs) at both ends.FUNCTION Integrase catalyzes viral DNA integration into the host chromosome, by performing a series of DNA cutting and joining reactions. This enzyme activity takes place after virion entry into a cell and reverse transcription of the RNA genome in dsDNA. The first step in the integration process is 3' processing. This step requires a complex comprising the viral genome, matrix protein, Vpr and integrase. This complex is called the pre-integration complex (PIC). The integrase protein removes 2 nucleotides from each 3' end of the viral DNA, leaving recessed CA OH's at the 3' ends. In the second step, the PIC enters cell nucleus. This process is mediated through integrase and Vpr proteins, and allows the virus to infect a non dividing cell. This ability to enter the nucleus is specific of lentiviruses, other retroviruses cannot and rely on cell division to access cell chromosomes. In the third step, termed strand transfer, the integrase protein joins the previously processed 3' ends to the 5' ends of strands of target cellular DNA at the site of integration. The 5'-ends are produced by integrase-catalyzed staggered cuts, 5 bp apart. A Y-shaped, gapped, recombination intermediate results, with the 5'-ends of the viral DNA strands and the 3' ends of target DNA strands remaining unjoined, flanking a gap of 5 bp. The last step is viral DNA integration into host chromosome. This involves host DNA repair synthesis in which the 5 bp gaps between the unjoined strands are filled in and then ligated. Since this process occurs at both cuts flanking the HIV genome, a 5 bp duplication of host DNA is produced at the ends of HIV-1 integration. Alternatively, Integrase may catalyze the excision of viral DNA just after strand transfer, this is termed disintegration.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Specific for a P1 residue that is hydrophobic, and P1' variable, but often Pro.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Endohydrolysis of RNA in RNA/DNA hybrids. Three different cleavage modes: 1. sequence-specific internal cleavage of RNA. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and Moloney murine leukemia virus enzymes prefer to cleave the RNA strand one nucleotide away from the RNA-DNA junction. 2. RNA 5'-end directed cleavage 13-19 nucleotides from the RNA end. 3. DNA 3'-end directed cleavage 15-20 nucleotides away from the primer terminus.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY 3'-end directed exonucleolytic cleavage of viral RNA-DNA hybrid.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNA(n) = diphosphate + DNA(n+1).ENZYME REGULATION The viral protease is inhibited by many synthetic protease inhibitors (PIs), such as amprenavir, atazanavir, indinavir, loprinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir and saquinavir. RT can be inhibited either by nucleoside RT inhibitors (NRTIs) or by non nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTIs). NRTIs act as chain terminators, whereas NNRTIs inhibit DNA polymerization by binding a small hydrophobic pocket near the RT active site and inducing an allosteric change in this region. Classical NRTIs are abacavir, adefovir (PMEA), didanosine (ddI), lamivudine (3TC), stavudine (d4T), tenofovir (PMPA), zalcitabine (ddC), and zidovudine (AZT). Classical NNRTIs are atevirdine (BHAP U-87201E), delavirdine, efavirenz (DMP-266), emivirine (I-EBU), and nevirapine (BI-RG-587). The tritherapies used as a basic effective treatment of AIDS associate two NRTIs and one NNRTI. Use of protease inhibitors in tritherapy regimens permit more ambitious therapeutic strategies.DOMAIN The tryptophan repeat motif is involved in RT p66/p51 dimerization.DOMAIN Integrase core domain contains the D-x(n)-D-x(35)-E motif, named for the phylogenetically conserved glutamic acid and aspartic acid residues and the invariant 35 amino acid spacing between the second and third acidic residues. Each acidic residue of the D,D(35)E motif is independently essential for the 3'-processing and strand transfer activities of purified integrase protein.PTM Specific enzymatic cleavages by the viral protease yield mature proteins. The protease is released by autocatalytic cleavage. The polyprotein is cleaved during and after budding, this process is termed maturation. Proteolytic cleavage of p66 RT removes the RNase H domain to yield the p51 RT subunit. Nucleocapsid protein p7 might be further cleaved after virus entry.PTM Capsid protein p24 is phosphorylated.PTM Matrix protein p17 is tyrosine phosphorylated presumably in the virion by a host kinase. This modification targets the matrix protein to the nucleus.MISCELLANEOUS Capsid protein p24 is able to bind macaque TRIM5-alpha or owl monkey TRIMCyp, preventing reverse transcription of the viral genome and succesfull infection of macaque or owl monkey by HIV-1.MISCELLANEOUS The reverse transcriptase is an error-prone enzyme that lacks a proof-reading function. High mutations rate is a direct consequence of this characteristic. RT also displays frequent template switching leading to high recombination rate. Recombination mostly occurs between homologous regions of the two copackaged RNA genomes. If these two RNA molecules derive from different viral strains, reverse transcription will give rise to highly recombinated proviral DNAs.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).MISCELLANEOUS Resistance to inhibitors associated with mutations are observed both in viral protease and in reverse transcriptase. Most of the time, single mutations confer only a modest reduction in drug susceptibility. Combination of several mutations is usually required to develop a high-level drug resistance. These mutations are predominantly found in clade B viruses and not in other genotypes. They are listed in this entry which is a representative of clade B.SIMILARITY Contains 2 CCHC-type zinc fingers.SIMILARITY Contains 1 integrase catalytic domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 integrase-type DNA-binding domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 integrase-type zinc finger.SIMILARITY Contains 1 peptidase A2 domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 reverse transcriptase domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 RNase H domain.
FUNCTION Essential component of the NELF complex, a complex that negatively regulates the elongation of transcription by RNA polymerase II. The NELF complex, which acts via an association with the DSIF complex and causes transcriptional pausing, is counteracted by the P-TEFb kinase complex. May be able to induce chromatin unfolding.SUBUNIT The NELF complex is composed of NELFA, NELFB, NELFCD (isoform NELF-C or isoform NELF-D) and NELFE. Interacts with the first BRCT repeat of BRCA1. Interacts with KIAA1191.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Expressed in heart, brain, lung, placenta, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney and pancreas.SIMILARITY Belongs to the NELF-B family.
TAK, an HIV Tat-associated kinase, is a member of the cyclin-dependent family of protein kinases and is induced by activation of peripheral blood lymphocytes and differentiation of promonocytic cell lines
The human endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT-I) and its role in HIV-1 budding
Glycosylated Envelope glycoprotein gp160
HIV-1 integration in the human genome favors active genes and local hotspots
Integration of viral DNA into host genomic DNA
Edited: Gopinathrao, G, D'Eustachio, P, 2006-05-18 20:10:22
Authored: Gopinathrao, G, D'Eustachio, P, 2006-05-18 20:10:22
Following nuclear entry, the viral preintegration complex (PIC) must select a site for integration in a host cell chromosome, and then carry out the chemical steps of the reaction. At the chromosomal level, HIV has been found to favor active transcription units for integration. Subsequent studies established that the cellular PSIP1/LEDGF/p75 protein is important in this reaction. PSIP1/LEDGF/p75 binds tightly to HIV integrase, and also to chromatin. Knocking down PSIP1/LEDGF/p75 in cells resulted in several perturbations of integration targeting in vivo, including reduced integration in transcription units. Thus PSIP1/LEDGF/p75 has been hypothesized to act as a tethering factor that dictates at least in part the placement of HIV integration sites. The integration target DNA is also expected to be coated with nucleosomes. Tests of integration into mononucleosomes in vitro have shown that wrapping integration target DNA actually boosts integration activity. Kinked positions on the DNA gyre are particularly favored for integration. Integration does not take place at a unique sequence in the integration target DNA (i.e. it is not like a restriction enzyme). However, favored and disfavored primary sequences can be detected when many integration sites are aligned. Synthesis and testing of favored HIV integration sites showed that they were favored for integration by PICs in vitro. After a target DNA is bound, the integration reactions take place via a single-step transesterification. Integration of both ends of the viral DNA, followed by melting of the target DNA segments between the points of joining, yields single stranded gaps at each host-virus DNA junction, and a two base overhang derived from the viral DNA. The manner by which this intermediate is subsequently repaired to yield the fully integrated provirus is unclear. For many parasitic DNA replication reactions, the parasite carries out reaction steps only up to a point that the host cannot easily reverse, forcing the host to complete the job (Bushman 2001; Craig et al. 2002). For retroviral integration, it is reasonable to infer that host DNA repair enzymes complete provirus formation. DNA gap repair enzymes are known to be involved in a variety of DNA repair pathways, so their recruitment to gaps at host-virus DNA junctions is readily envisioned. Consistent with this, known gap repair enzymes have been shown to act on model host-virus DNA junctions in vitro (Yoder and Bushman, 2000).
Retroviral integration into minichromosomes in vitro
Gag localization and virus-like particle release mediated by the matrix domain of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 Gag are less dependent on phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate than those mediated by the matrix domain of HIV-1 Gag
FUNCTION Adds a myristoyl group to the N-terminal glycine residue of certain cellular and viral proteins.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Tetradecanoyl-CoA + glycylpeptide = CoA + N-tetradecanoylglycylpeptide.SIMILARITY Belongs to the NMT family.CAUTION Sequence AAF36406.2 was incorrectly indicated as originating from bovine.
HIV-1 structural gene expression requires the binding of multiple Rev monomers to the viral RRE: implications for HIV-1 latency
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FUNCTION Component of the ESCRT-I complex, a regulator of vesicular trafficking process. Required for the sorting of endocytic ubiquitinated cargos into multivesicular bodies. May be involved in cell growth and differentiation.SUBUNIT Component of the ESCRT-I complex (endosomal sorting complex required for transport I) which consists of TSG101, VPS28, a VPS37 protein (VPS37A to -D) and MVB12A or MVB12B in a 1:1:1:1 stoechiometry. Interacts with TSG101, VPS28, MVB12A and MVB12B. Interacts with CEP55. Interacts with IST1.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Expressed in macrophages and lymphocytes.SIMILARITY Belongs to the VPS37 family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 VPS37 C-terminal domain.
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The convertases furin and PC1 can both cleave the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 envelope glycoprotein gp160 into gp120 (HIV-1 SU) and gp41 (HIV-I TM)
HIV Restriction Factors and Mechanisms of Evasion
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FUNCTION Ubiquitin exists either covalently attached to another protein, or free (unanchored). When covalently bound, it is conjugated to target proteins via an isopeptide bond either as a monomer (monoubiquitin), a polymer linked via different Lys residues of the ubiquitin (polyubiquitin chains) or a linear polymer linked via the initiator Met of the ubiquitin (linear polyubiquitin chains). Polyubiquitin chains, when attached to a target protein, have different functions depending on the Lys residue of the ubiquitin that is linked: Lys-6-linked may be involved in DNA repair; Lys-11-linked is involved in ERAD (endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation) and in cell-cycle regulation; Lys-29-linked is involved in lysosomal degradation; Lys-33-linked is involved in kinase modification; Lys-48-linked is involved in protein degradation via the proteasome; Lys-63-linked is involved in endocytosis, DNA-damage responses as well as in signaling processes leading to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa-B. Linear polymer chains formed via attachment by the initiator Met lead to cell signaling. Ubiquitin is usually conjugated to Lys residues of target proteins, however, in rare cases, conjugation to Cys or Ser residues has been observed. When polyubiquitin is free (unanchored-polyubiquitin), it also has distinct roles, such as in activation of protein kinases, and in signaling.FUNCTION Ribosomal protein L40 is a component of the 60S subunit of the ribosome.MISCELLANEOUS Ubiquitin is encoded by 4 different genes. UBA52 and RPS27A genes code for a single copy of ubiquitin fused to the ribosomal proteins L40 and S27a, respectively. UBB and UBC genes code for a polyubiquitin precursor with exact head to tail repeats, the number of repeats differ between species and strains.MISCELLANEOUS For a better understanding, features related to ubiquitin are only indicated for the first chain.SIMILARITY In the N-terminal section; belongs to the ubiquitin family.SIMILARITY In the C-terminal section; belongs to the ribosomal protein L40e family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 ubiquitin-like domain.
Alternative splicing: regulation of HIV-1 multiplication as a target for therapeutic action
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FUNCTION Ubiquitin exists either covalently attached to another protein, or free (unanchored). When covalently bound, it is conjugated to target proteins via an isopeptide bond either as a monomer (monoubiquitin), a polymer linked via different Lys residues of the ubiquitin (polyubiquitin chains) or a linear polymer linked via the initiator Met of the ubiquitin (linear polyubiquitin chains). Polyubiquitin chains, when attached to a target protein, have different functions depending on the Lys residue of the ubiquitin that is linked: Lys-6-linked may be involved in DNA repair; Lys-11-linked is involved in ERAD (endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation) and in cell-cycle regulation; Lys-29-linked is involved in lysosomal degradation; Lys-33-linked is involved in kinase modification; Lys-48-linked is involved in protein degradation via the proteasome; Lys-63-linked is involved in endocytosis, DNA-damage responses as well as in signaling processes leading to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa-B. Linear polymer chains formed via attachment by the initiator Met lead to cell signaling. Ubiquitin is usually conjugated to Lys residues of target proteins, however, in rare cases, conjugation to Cys or Ser residues has been observed. When polyubiquitin is free (unanchored-polyubiquitin), it also has distinct roles, such as in activation of protein kinases, and in signaling.FUNCTION Ribosomal protein S27a is a component of the 40S subunit of the ribosome.MISCELLANEOUS Ubiquitin is encoded by 4 different genes. UBA52 and RPS27A genes code for a single copy of ubiquitin fused to the ribosomal proteins L40 and S27a, respectively. UBB and UBC genes code for a polyubiquitin precursor with exact head to tail repeats, the number of repeats differ between species and strains.MISCELLANEOUS For a better understanding, features related to ubiquitin are only indicated for the first chain.SIMILARITY In the N-terminal section; belongs to the ubiquitin family.SIMILARITY In the C-terminal section; belongs to the ribosomal protein S27Ae family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 ubiquitin-like domain.
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FUNCTION Component of the ESCRT-I complex, a regulator of vesicular trafficking process. Required for the sorting of endocytic ubiquitinated cargos into multivesicular bodies. May be involved in cell growth and differentiation.SUBUNIT Component of the ESCRT-I complex (endosomal sorting complex required for transport I) which consists of TSG101, VPS28, a VPS37 protein (VPS37A to -D) and MVB12A or MVB12B in a 1:1:1:1 stoechiometry. Interacts with TSG101 and MVB12A.DISEASE Note=VPS37D is located in the Williams-Beuren syndrome (WBS) critical region. WBS results from a hemizygous deletion of several genes on chromosome 7q11.23, thought to arise as a consequence of unequal crossing over between highly homologous low-copy repeat sequences flanking the deleted region.SIMILARITY Belongs to the VPS37 family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 VPS37 C-terminal domain.
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HIV-1 integrase forms stable tetramers and associates with LEDGF/p75 protein in human cells
SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoK/eukaryotic RPB6 RNA polymerase subunit family.
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Ubiquitin is covalently attached to the p6Gag proteins of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and simian immunodeficiency virus and to the p12Gag protein of Moloney murine leukemia virus
Gag proteins of the highly replicative MN strain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: posttranslational modifications, proteolytic processings, and complete amino acid sequences
A novel CDK9-associated C-type cyclin interacts directly with HIV-1 Tat and mediates its high-affinity, loop-specific binding to TAR RNA
A stable complex between integrase and viral DNA ends mediates human immunodeficiency virus integration in vitro
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Simian virus 40 minichromosomes as targets for retroviral integration in vivo
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Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 preintegration complexes: studies of organization and composition
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FUNCTION TFIIF is a general transcription initiation factor that binds to RNA polymerase II and helps to recruit it to the initiation complex in collaboration with TFIIB. It promotes transcription elongation.SUBUNIT Heterodimer of an alpha and a beta subunit. Interacts with GTF2F2, CTDP1, TAF6/TAFII80 and URI1.INDUCTION Up-regulated in response to enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection.PTM Phosphorylated on Ser and other residues by TAF1 and casein kinase II-like kinases.SIMILARITY Belongs to the TFIIF alpha subunit family.CAUTION Was reported (PubMed:10428810) to have a protein kinase activity and to autophosphorylates on Ser-385 and Thr-389.
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FUNCTION Component of the ESCRT-I complex, a regulator of vesicular trafficking process.SUBUNIT Component of the ESCRT-I complex (endosomal sorting complex required for transport I) which consists of TSG101, VPS28, a VPS37 protein (VPS37A to -D) and MVB12A or MVB12B in a 1:1:1:1 stoechiometry. Interacts with TSG101, VPS37B, VPS37C, MVB12A and MVB12B. Interacts WITH VPS36; the interaction mediates the association with the ESCRT-II complex. Interacts with SNF8 and VPS25. Interacts with CEP55.SIMILARITY Belongs to the VPS28 family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 VPS28 C-terminal domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 VPS28 N-terminal domain.
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HIV-1 structural gene expression requires binding of the Rev trans-activator to its RNA target sequence
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Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein regions important for association with the gp41 transmembrane glycoprotein
The two viral membrane proteins, Env and the accessory protein Vpu, which are encoded by the same mRNA, are translated on the rough ER. All virion components need to traffic from their point of synthesis to sites of assembly on the plasma membrane. Env is an integral membrane protein. It is inserted cotranslationally into ER membranes and then travels through the cellular secretory pathway where it is glycosylated, assembled into trimeric complexes, processed into the gp41 and gp120 subunits by the cellular protease furin.
Genome-wide analysis of retroviral DNA integration
SUBUNIT May form pentamers or hexamers. Forms ternary complexes, by interacting with human CD4 and BTRC, and with human BST2 and BTRC.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).SIMILARITY Belongs to the HIV-1 VPU protein family.
SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits. Interacts with AATF.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Ubiquitously expressed. High expression was found in heart and skeletal muscle.SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoL/eukaryotic RPB11/RPC19 RNA polymerase subunit family.
FUNCTION Component of the ESCRT-I complex, a regulator of vesicular trafficking process. Required for the sorting of endocytic ubiquitinated cargos into multivesicular bodies. May be involved in cell growth and differentiation.SUBUNIT Component of the ESCRT-I complex (endosomal sorting complex required for transport I) which consists of TSG101, VPS28, a VPS37 protein (VPS37A to -D) and MVB12A or MVB12B in a 1:1:1:1 stoechiometry. Interacts with TSG101, VPS28 and HGS.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Examined tissues include heart, brain, placenta, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney and pancreas. More abundant in liver. Strongly decreased or undetected in hepatomas.DISEASE Spastic paraplegia autosomal recessive 53 (SPG53) [MIM:614898]: A form of spastic paraplegia, a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a slow, gradual, progressive weakness and spasticity of the lower limbs. Rate of progression and the severity of symptoms are quite variable. Initial symptoms may include difficulty with balance, weakness and stiffness in the legs, muscle spasms, and dragging the toes when walking. Complicated forms are characterized by the addition of such neurological features as spastic quadriparesis, seizures, dementia, amyotrophy, extrapyramidal disturbance, cerebral or cerebellar atrophy, optic atrophy, and peripheral neuropathy, as well as by extra neurological manifestations such as dysmorphism, albinism, retinitis pigmentosa, deafness, dementia, amyotrophy and ichthyosis. SPG53 is characterized by pronounced early onset spastic paraparesis of upper and lower limbs, mild intellectual disability, kyphosis, pectus carinatum and hypertrichosis. Note=The disease is caused by mutations affecting the gene represented in this entry.SIMILARITY Belongs to the VPS37 family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 VPS37 C-terminal domain.
FUNCTION Transcriptional coactivator involved in neuroepithelial stem cell differentiation and neurogenesis. Involved in particular in lens epithelial cell gene regulation and stress responses. May play an important role in lens epithelial to fiber cell terminal differentiation. May play a protective role during stress-induced apoptosis. Isoform 2 is a more general and stronger transcriptional coactivator. Isoform 2 may also act as an adapter to coordinate pre-mRNA splicing. Cellular cofactor for lentiviral integration.SUBUNIT Monomer. Interacts with IFRD1/PC4. Isoform 2 interacts with SFRS1. Isoform 1 interacts POGZ and CDCA7L. Isoform 1 interacts with lentiviral integrase and acts as a chromatin tethering factor to the chromosomal DNA. Isoform 1 interacts in particular with the human HIV-1 integrase protein (HIV-1 IN), determining its nuclear localization, its tight association with chromatin and its protection from the proteasome. Isoform 1 interacts also with HIV-2 IN. Isoform 2 does not interact with HIV-1 IN.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Expressed at high level in the thymus. Expressed in fetal and adult brain. Expressed in neurons, but not astrocytes. Markedly elevated in fetal as compared to adult brain. In the adult brain, expressed in the subventricular zone (SVZ), in hippocampus, and undetectable elsewhere. In the fetal brain, expressed in the germinal neuroepithelium and cortical plate regions.DOMAIN Residues 340-417 are necessary and sufficient for the interaction with HIV-1 IN (IBD domain).DISEASE Note=A chromosomal aberration involving PSIP1 is associated with pediatric acute myeloid leukemia (AML) with intermediate characteristics between M2-M3 French-American-British (FAB) subtypes. Translocation t(9;11)(p22;p15) with NUP98. The chimeric transcript is an in-frame fusion of NUP98 exon 8 to PSIP1/LEDGF exon 4.SIMILARITY Belongs to the HDGF family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 PWWP domain.
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Domains in the SPT5 protein that modulate its transcriptional regulatory properties
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Role of envelope processing and gp41 membrane spanning domain in the formation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) fusion-competent envelope glycoprotein complex
FUNCTION DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the transcription of DNA into RNA using the four ribonucleoside triphosphates as substrates. Common component of RNA polymerases I, II and III which synthesize ribosomal RNA precursors, mRNA precursors and many functional non-coding RNAs, and small RNAs, such as 5S rRNA and tRNAs, respectively.SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase I (Pol I), RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and RNA polymerase III (Pol III) complexes consisting of at least 13, 12 and 17 subunits, respectively. Directly interacts with POLR2A.SIMILARITY Belongs to the eukaryotic RPB8 RNA polymerase subunit family.
Distribution and three-dimensional structure of AIDS virus envelope spikes
Retroviral DNA integration--mechanism and consequences
FUNCTION HMG-I/Y bind preferentially to the minor groove of A+T rich regions in double stranded DNA. It is suggested that these proteins could function in nucleosome phasing and in the 3'-end processing of mRNA transcripts. They are also involved in the transcription regulation of genes containing, or in close proximity to A+T-rich regions.SUBUNIT Interacts with HIPK2 (By similarity). Interacts with HIV-1 pre-integration complex.PTM Constitutively phosphorylated on two or three sites. Hyperphosphorylated at early stages of apoptosis, followed by dephosphorylation and methylation, which coincides with chromatin condensation. Isoforms HMG-I and HMG-Y can be phosphorylated by HIPK2. Phosphorylation of HMG-I at Ser-36, Thr-53 and Thr-78 and of HMG-Y at Thr-42 and Thr-67 by HIPK2 modulates DNA-binding affinity.PTM HMG-Y is not methylated.PTM Methylation at Arg-58 is mutually exclusive with methylation at Arg-60.DISEASE Note=A chromosomal aberration involving HMGA1 is found in pulmonary chondroid hamartoma. Translocation t(6;14)(p21;q23-24) with RAD51B.SIMILARITY Belongs to the HMGA family.SIMILARITY Contains 3 A.T hook DNA-binding domains.
FUNCTION DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the transcription of DNA into RNA using the four ribonucleoside triphosphates as substrates. Common component of RNA polymerases I, II and III which synthesize ribosomal RNA precursors, mRNA precursors and many functional non-coding RNAs, and a small RNAs, such as 5S rRNA and tRNAs, respectively.SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoP/eukaryotic RPC10 RNA polymerase subunit family.
Symmetrical base preferences surrounding HIV-1, avian sarcoma/leukosis virus, and murine leukemia virus integration sites
Identification of human VPS37C, a component of endosomal sorting complex required for transport-I important for viral budding
FUNCTION Furin is likely to represent the ubiquitous endoprotease activity within constitutive secretory pathways and capable of cleavage at the RX(K/R)R consensus motif.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Release of mature proteins from their proproteins by cleavage of -Arg-Xaa-Yaa-Arg-|-Zaa- bonds, where Xaa can be any amino acid and Yaa is Arg or Lys. Releases albumin, complement component C3 and vWF from their respective precursors.COFACTOR Calcium.ENZYME REGULATION Could be inhibited by the not secondly cleaved propeptide.SUBUNIT Interacts with FLNA (By similarity). Binds to PACS1 which mediates TGN localization and connection to clathrin adapters.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Seems to be expressed ubiquitously.DOMAIN Contains a cytoplasmic domain responsible for its TGN localization and recycling from the cell surface.PTM The inhibition peptide, which plays the role of an intramolecular chaperone, is autocatalytically removed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and remains non-covalently bound to furin as a potent autoinhibitor. Following transport to the trans Golgi, a second cleavage within the inhibition propeptide results in propeptide dissociation and furin activation.PTM Phosphorylation is required for TGN localization of the endoprotease. In vivo, exists as di-, mono- and non-phosphorylated forms.SIMILARITY Belongs to the peptidase S8 family. Furin subfamily.SIMILARITY Contains 1 homo B/P domain.
Termination of HIV-1 transcription is believed to be mechanistically the same as termination of endogenous human messages.
Authored: Matthews, L, Rice, AP, 2005-07-27 00:00:00
Sequence-specific RNA binding by the HIV-1 Rev protein
Structural basis for the recognition between HIV-1 integrase and transcriptional coactivator p75
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Chromosome structure and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 cDNA integration: centromeric alphoid repeats are a disfavored target
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A role for LEDGF/p75 in targeting HIV DNA integration
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FUNCTION Escorts unspliced or incompletely spliced viral pre-mRNAs (late transcripts) out of the nucleus of infected cells. These pre-mRNAs carry a recognition sequence called Rev responsive element (RRE) located in the env gene, that is not present in fully spliced viral mRNAs (early transcripts). This function is essential since most viral proteins are translated from unspliced or partially spliced pre-mRNAs which cannot exit the nucleus by the pathway used by fully processed cellular mRNAs. Rev itself is translated from a fully spliced mRNA that readily exits the nucleus. Rev's nuclear localization signal (NLS) binds directly to KPNB1/Importin beta-1 without previous binding to KPNA1/Importin alpha-1. KPNB1 binds to the GDP bound form of RAN (Ran-GDP) and targets Rev to the nucleus. In the nucleus, the conversion from Ran-GDP to Ran-GTP dissociates Rev from KPNB1 and allows Rev's binding to the RRE in viral pre-mRNAs. Rev multimerization on the RRE via cooperative assembly exposes its nuclear export signal (NES) to the surface. Rev can then form a complex with XPO1/CRM1 and Ran-GTP, leading to nuclear export of the complex. Conversion from Ran-GTP to Ran-GDP mediates dissociation of the Rev/RRE/XPO1/RAN complex, so that Rev can return to the nucleus for a subsequent round of export. Beside KPNB1, also seems to interact with TNPO1/Transportin-1, RANBP5/IPO5 and IPO7/RANBP7 for nuclear import. The nucleoporin-like HRB/RIP is an essential cofactor that probably indirectly interacts with Rev to release HIV RNAs from the perinuclear region to the cytoplasm (By similarity). Interacts with DDX1; the interaction is necessary for proper subcellular localization of this protein.PTM Phosphorylated by protein kinase CK2. Presence of, and maybe binding to the N-terminus of the regulatory beta subunit of CK2 is necessary for CK2-mediated Rev's phosphorylation.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).SIMILARITY Belongs to the HIV-1 REV protein family.
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SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits. RPB11/POLR2J and RPB3/POLR2C subunits interact with each other.SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoD/eukaryotic RPB3 RNA polymerase subunit family.
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SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase I (Pol I), RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and RNA polymerase III (Pol III) complexes consisting of at least 13, 12 and 17 subunits, respectively (By similarity). In RNA Pol II, this subunit is present in 2-fold molar excess over the other subunits. Interacts with URI1. Interacts with HBV protein X.SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoH/eukaryotic RPB5 RNA polymerase subunit family.
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FUNCTION DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the transcription of DNA into RNA using the four ribonucleoside triphosphates as substrates. Component of RNA polymerase II which synthesizes mRNA precursors and many functional non-coding RNAs. Pol II is the central component of the basal RNA polymerase II transcription machinery. It is composed of mobile elements that move relative to each other. RPB7 is part of a subcomplex with RPB4 that binds to a pocket formed by RPB1, RPB2 and RPB6 at the base of the clamp element. The RBP4-RPB7 subcomplex seems to lock the clamp via RPB7 in the closed conformation thus preventing double stranded DNA to enter the active site cleft. The RPB4-RPB7 subcomplex binds single-stranded DNA and RNA (By similarity). Binds RNA.SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits. RPB4 and RPB7 form a subcomplex that protrudes from the 10-subunit Pol II core complex.SIMILARITY Belongs to the eukaryotic RPB7/RPC8 RNA polymerase subunit family.
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SUBUNIT Interacts with host CCNT1. Associates with the P-TEFb complex composed at least of Tat, P-TEFb (CDK9 and CCNT1), TAR RNA, RNA Pol II. Recruits the HATs CREBBP, TAF1/TFIID, EP300, PCAF and GCN5L2. Interacts with host KAT5/Tip60; this interaction targets the latter to degradation. Interacts with the host deacetylase SIRT1. Interacts with host capping enzyme RNGTT; this interaction stimulates RNGTT. Binds to host KDR, and to the host integrins ITGAV/ITGB3 and ITGA5/ITGB1. Interacts with host KPNB1/importin beta-1 without previous binding to KPNA1/importin alpha-1. Interacts with EIF2AK2. Interacts with host nucleosome assembly protein NAP1L1; this interaction may be required for the transport of Tat within the nucleus, since the two proteins interact at the nuclear rim. Interacts with host C1QBP/SF2P32; this interaction involves lysine-acetylated Tat. Interacts with the host chemokine receptors CCR2, CCR3 and CXCR4. Interacts with host DPP4/CD26; this interaction may trigger an anti-proliferative effect. Interacts with host LDLR. Interacts with the host extracellular matrix metalloproteinase MMP1. Interacts with host PRMT6; this interaction mediates Tat's methylation. Interacts with, and is ubiquitinated by MDM2/Hdm2. Interacts with host PSMC3 and HTATIP2. Interacts with STAB1; this interaction may overcome SATB1-mediated repression of IL2 and IL2RA (interleukin) in T cells by binding to the same domain than HDAC1 (By similarity). Interacts (when acetylated on Lys-50 and Lys-51) with human CDK13, thereby increasing HIV-1 mRNA splicing and promoting the production of the doubly spliced HIV-1 protein Nef.MISCELLANEOUS This truncated variant has a premature stop codon. It may have arose as a consequence of tissue culture passaging.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).SIMILARITY Belongs to the lentiviruses Tat family.
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SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoN/eukaryotic RPB10 RNA polymerase subunit family.
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Nonrandom distribution of gp120 N-linked glycosylation sites important for infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1
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FUNCTION Component of the DRB sensitivity-inducing factor complex (DSIF complex), which regulates mRNA processing and transcription elongation by RNA polymerase II. DSIF positively regulates mRNA capping by stimulating the mRNA guanylyltransferase activity of RNGTT/CAP1A. DSIF also acts cooperatively with the negative elongation factor complex (NELF complex) to enhance transcriptional pausing at sites proximal to the promoter. Transcriptional pausing may facilitate the assembly of an elongation competent RNA polymerase II complex. DSIF and NELF promote pausing by inhibition of the transcription elongation factor TFIIS/S-II. TFIIS/S-II binds to RNA polymerase II at transcription pause sites and stimulates the weak intrinsic nuclease activity of the enzyme. Cleavage of blocked transcripts by RNA polymerase II promotes the resumption of transcription from the new 3' terminus and may allow repeated attempts at transcription through natural pause sites. DSIF can also positively regulate transcriptional elongation and is required for the efficient activation of transcriptional elongation by the HIV-1 nuclear transcriptional activator, Tat. DSIF acts to suppress transcriptional pausing in transcripts derived from the HIV-1 LTR and blocks premature release of HIV-1 transcripts at terminator sequences.SUBUNIT Interacts with SUPT5H to form DSIF. DSIF interacts with the positive transcription elongation factor b complex (P-TEFb complex), which is composed of CDK9 and cyclin-T (CCNT1 or CCNT2). DSIF interacts with RNA polymerase II, and this interaction is reduced by phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of POLR2A by P-TEFb. DSIF also interacts with the NELF complex, which is composed of WHSC2/NELFA, COBRA1/NELFB, TH1L/NELFD and RDBP/NELFE, and this interaction occurs following prior binding of DSIF to RNA polymerase II. DSIF also interacts with HRMT1L2/PRMT1, HTATSF1/TATSF1, RNGTT/CAP1A, SKB1/PRMT5, SUPT6H, and can interact with PIN1.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed.SIMILARITY Belongs to the SPT4 family.
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FUNCTION DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the transcription of DNA into RNA using the four ribonucleoside triphosphates as substrates. Largest and catalytic component of RNA polymerase II which synthesizes mRNA precursors and many functional non-coding RNAs. Forms the polymerase active center together with the second largest subunit. Pol II is the central component of the basal RNA polymerase II transcription machinery. It is composed of mobile elements that move relative to each other. RPB1 is part of the core element with the central large cleft, the clamp element that moves to open and close the cleft and the jaws that are thought to grab the incoming DNA template. At the start of transcription, a single stranded DNA template strand of the promoter is positioned within the central active site cleft of Pol II. A bridging helix emanates from RPB1 and crosses the cleft near the catalytic site and is thought to promote translocation of Pol II by acting as a ratchet that moves the RNA-DNA hybrid through the active site by switching from straight to bent conformations at each step of nucleotide addition. During transcription elongation, Pol II moves on the template as the transcript elongates. Elongation is influenced by the phosphorylation status of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II largest subunit (RPB1), which serves as a platform for assembly of factors that regulate transcription initiation, elongation, termination and mRNA processing. Acts as a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase when associated with small delta antigen of Hepatitis delta virus, acting both as a replicate and transcriptase for the viral RNA circular genome.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Nucleoside triphosphate + RNA(n) = diphosphate + RNA(n+1).SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits. The phosphorylated C-terminal domain interacts with FNBP3 and SYNCRIP. Interacts with SAFB/SAFB1. Interacts with CCNL1 and MYO1C (By similarity). Interacts with CCNL2 and SFRS19. Component of a complex which is at least composed of HTATSF1/Tat-SF1, the P-TEFb complex components CDK9 and CCNT1, RNA polymerase II, SUPT5H, and NCL/nucleolin. Interacts with PAF1. Interacts (via C-terminus) with FTSJD2, CTDSP1 and SCAF8. Interacts via the phosphorylated C-terminal domain with WDR82 and with SETD1A and SETD1B only in the presence of WDR82. Interacts with ATF7IP. When phosphorylated at 'Ser-5', interacts with MEN1; the unphosphorylated form, or phosphorylated at 'Ser-2' does not interact. Interacts with DDX5.PTM The tandem 7 residues repeats in the C-terminal domain (CTD) can be highly phosphorylated. The phosphorylation activates Pol II. Phosphorylation occurs mainly at residues 'Ser-2' and 'Ser-5' of the heptapeptide repeat and is mediated, at least, by CDK7 and CDK9. CDK7 phosphorylation of POLR2A associated with DNA promotes transcription initiation by triggering dissociation from DNA. Phosphorylation also takes place at 'Ser-7' of the heptapepdtide repeat, which is required for efficient transcription of snRNA genes and processing of the transcripts. The phosphorylation state is believed to result from the balanced action of site-specific CTD kinases and phosphatases, and a 'CTD code' that specifies the position of Pol II within the transcription cycle has been proposed.PTM Dephosphorylated by the protein phosphatase CTDSP1.PTM Ubiquitinated by WWP2 leading to proteasomal degradation (By similarity). Following UV treatment, the elongating form of RNA polymerase II (RNA pol IIo) is ubiquitinated UV damage sites without leading to degradation: ubiquitination is facilitated by KIAA1530/UVSSA and promotes RNA pol IIo backtracking to allow access to the nucleotide excision repair machinery.PTM Methylated at Arg-1810 by CARM1. Methylation occurs only when the CTD is hypophosphorylated, and phosphorylation at Ser-1805 and Ser-1808 prevent methylation (in vitro). It is assumed that methylation occurs prior to phosphorylation and transcription initiation. CTD methylation may facilitate the expression of select RNAs.MISCELLANEOUS The binding of ribonucleoside triphosphate to the RNA polymerase II transcribing complex probably involves a two-step mechanism. The initial binding seems to occur at the entry (E) site and involves a magnesium ion temporarily coordinated by three conserved aspartate residues of the two largest RNA Pol II subunits. The ribonucleoside triphosphate is transferred by a rotation to the nucleotide addition (A) site for pairing with the template DNA. The catalytic A site involves three conserved aspartate residues of the RNA Pol II largest subunit which permanently coordinate a second magnesium ion.SIMILARITY Belongs to the RNA polymerase beta' chain family.
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Cumulative mutations of ubiquitin acceptor sites in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gag cause a late budding defect
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FUNCTION Essential component of the NELF complex, a complex that negatively regulates the elongation of transcription by RNA polymerase II. The NELF complex, which acts via an association with the DSIF complex and causes transcriptional pausing, is counteracted by the P-TEFb kinase complex. Probably required to interact with the RNA polymerase II complex.SUBUNIT The NELF complex is composed of NELFA, NELFB, NELFCD (isoform NELF-C or isoform NELF-D) and NELFE. Interacts with the RNA polymerase II complex when it is not phosphorylated by P-TEFb.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Ubiquitous. Expressed in heart, brain, placenta, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney and pancreas. Expressed at lower level in adult lung. Expressed in fetal brain, lung, liver and kidney.DOMAIN The HDAg-like domain is essential for transcriptional repression, and mediates the interaction with the RNA polymerase II complex.SIMILARITY Belongs to the NELF-A family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 HDAg-like domain.CAUTION PubMed:12612062 has shown that it is not involved in Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome.
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LEDGF/p75 determines cellular trafficking of diverse lentiviral but not murine oncoretroviral integrase proteins and is a component of functional lentiviral preintegration complexes
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Retroviral integration machinery as a probe for DNA structure and associated proteins
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 58:533-41
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Nucleosomes, DNA-binding proteins, and DNA sequence modulate retroviral integration target site selection
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FUNCTION Processively dephosphorylates 'Ser-2' and 'Ser-5' of the heptad repeats YSPTSPS in the C-terminal domain of the largest RNA polymerase II subunit. This promotes the activity of RNA polymerase II. Plays a role in the exit from mitosis by dephosphorylating crucial mitotic substrates (USP44, CDC20 and WEE1) that are required for M-phase-promoting factor (MPF)/CDK1 inactivation.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY A phosphoprotein + H(2)O = a protein + phosphate.SUBUNIT Homodimer. Interacts with GTF2F1. Interacts with WDR77, SNRPB and SNRNP70.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Ubiquitously expressed. Isoform 3 is expressed in heart, brain, placenta, lung, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney and placenta.PTM Phosphorylated. In the presence of TFIIF, the phosphorylated form has an increased CTD phosphatase activity. The phosphorylation is required for the physical interaction with GTF2F1.DISEASE Congenital cataracts, facial dysmorphism, and neuropathy (CCFDN) [MIM:604168]: An autosomal recessive developmental disorder characterized by a complex clinical phenotype with seemingly unrelated features involving multiple organs and systems. Developmental abnormalities include congenital cataracts and microcorneae, hypomyelination of the peripheral nervous system, impaired physical growth, delayed early motor and intellectual development, facial dysmorphism and hypogonadism. Central nervous system involvement, with cerebral and spinal cord atrophy, may be the result of disrupted development with superimposed degenerative changes. Affected individuals are prone to severe rhabdomyolysis after viral infections and to serious complications related to general anesthesia (such as pulmonary edema and epileptic seizures). Note=The disease is caused by mutations affecting the gene represented in this entry.SIMILARITY Contains 1 BRCT domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 FCP1 homology domain.
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FUNCTION Regulatory subunit of the cyclin-dependent kinase pair (CDK9/cyclin-T1) complex, also called positive transcription elongation factor B (P-TEFb), which is proposed to facilitate the transition from abortive to productive elongation by phosphorylating the CTD (carboxy-terminal domain) of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II). In case of HIV or SIV infections, binds to the transactivation domain of the viral nuclear transcriptional activator, Tat, thereby increasing Tat's affinity for the transactivating response RNA element (TAR RNA). Serves as an essential cofactor for Tat, by promoting RNA Pol II activation, allowing transcription of viral genes.SUBUNIT Cyclin-T1 is the predominant cyclin that associates with CDK9 to form a heterodimer called P-TEFb. P-TEFb forms a complex with AFF4/AF5Q31. Interacts with the transactivation region of HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIV Tat. Component of a complex which is at least composed of HTATSF1/Tat-SF1, P-TEFb complex, RNA pol II, SUPT5H, and NCL/nucleolin. Component of the 7SK snRNP complex at least composed of P-TEFb (composed of CDK9 and CCNT1/cyclin-T1), HEXIM1, HEXIM2, BCDIN3, SART3 proteins and 7SK and U6 snRNAs. Interacts with MDFIC.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Ubiquitously expressed.MISCELLANEOUS Interaction between Tat and cyclin-T1 requires zinc.SIMILARITY Belongs to the cyclin family. Cyclin C subfamily.
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FUNCTION Plays fundamental roles in nuclear assembly, chromatin organization, gene expression and gonad development. May potently compress chromatin structure and be involved in membrane recruitment and chromatin decondensation during nuclear assembly. Contains 2 non-specific dsDNA-binding sites which may promote DNA cross-bridging. Exploited by retroviruses for inhibiting self-destructing autointegration of retroviral DNA, thereby promoting integration of viral DNA into the host chromosome. EMD and BAF are cooperative cofactors of HIV-1 infection. Association of EMD with the viral DNA requires the presence of BAF and viral integrase. The association of viral DNA with chromatin requires the presence of BAF and EMD.SUBUNIT Homodimer. Heterodimerizes with BAFL. Interacts with ANKLE2/LEM4, leading to decreased phosphorylation by VRK1 and promoting dephosphorylation by protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Binds non-specifically to double-stranded DNA, and is found as a hexamer or dodecamer upon DNA binding. Binds to LEM domain-containing nuclear proteins such as LEMD3/MAN1, TMPO/LAP2 and EMD (emerin). Interacts with CRX and LMNA (lamin-A). Binds linker histone H1.1 and core histones H3 with in vitro affinities of 500-900 and 100-200 nM. Interacts with HIV-1 pre-integration complex in cytoplasm by binding to viral matrix protein and Gag polyprotein.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Expressed in colon, brain, heart, kidney, liver, lung, ovary, pancreas, placenta, prostate, skeletal muscle, small intestine, spleen and testis. Not detected in thymus and peripheral blood leukocytes.DOMAIN Has a helix-hairpin-helix (HhH) structural motif conserved among proteins that bind non-specifically to DNA.DOMAIN LEM domain proteins bind centrally on the BAF dimer, whereas DNA binds to the left and right sides.PTM Ser-4 is the major site of phosphorylation as compared to Thr-2 and Thr-3. Phosphorylation on Thr-2; Thr-3 and Ser-4 disrupts its ability to bind DNA and reduces its ability to bind LEM domain-containing proteins. Non phosphorylated BAF seems to enhance binding between EMD and LMNA. Dephosphorylated by protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) following interaction with ANKLE2/LEM4 during mitotic exit, leading to mitotic nuclear envelope reassembly.DISEASE Nestor-Guillermo progeria syndrome (NGPS) [MIM:614008]: An atypical progeroid syndrome characterized by normal development in the first years of life, later followed by the emergence of generalized lipoatrophy, severe osteoporosis, and marked osteolysis. The atrophic facial subcutaneous fat pad and the marked osteolysis of the maxilla and mandible result in a typical pseudosenile facial appearance with micrognatia, prominent subcutaneous venous patterning, a convex nasal ridge, and proptosis. Cognitive development is completely normal. Patients do not have cardiovascular dysfunction, atherosclerosis, or metabolic anomalies. Note=The disease is caused by mutations affecting the gene represented in this entry.SIMILARITY Belongs to the BAF family.
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Cleavage of the viral Env gp160 precursor polyprotein
The trimeric gp160 complexes are cleaved into the gp41 and gp120 subunits by the cellular protease furin.
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Transport of trimeric gp41:gp120 to plasma membrane
The cleaved and assembled gp41:gp121 complexes are transport to teh plasma membrane. This complex ultimately arrives via the cellular secretion pathway. Env is an integral membrane protein shuttled through the ER and Golgi where it was glycosylated and cleaved into the gp41 and gp120 subunits. The trimeric complex is brought to the plasma membrane by the host vesicular transport system. Only 7-14 trimers are present per virion.
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Transport of trimeric ENV precursor to Golgi apparatus
The trimeric ENV precursor complex is transported from the ER to the Golgi.
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Folding and Oligomerization of ENV glycoprotein
The monomeric GP160 ENV precursor protein assembles into a trimer.
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There are numerous N-linked glycosylation sites that are important for infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. With more than 20 consensus N-linked glycosylation sites in gp120 it is expected that a number are important for virion function.
The ENV precursor protein gp160 is synthesized.
HIV is characterized by the production of multiple-spliced RNA species. The genomic fragmant is processesed creating multiple mRNA fragments.
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Translocation of Vpr to the mitochondria
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Phosphorylation of DSIF by the P-TEFb(Cyclin T1:Cdk9) complex
Phosphorylation of the Spt5 subunit of DSIF by P-TEFb(Cyclin T1:Cdk9) results in the conversion of DSIF to an elongation factor (Ivanov al. 2000).
Formation of the P-TEFb(Cyclin T1:Cdk9) complex
Tat associates with the Cyclin T1 subunit of the cellular kinase complex TAK/P-TEFb and recruits this complex to the TAR sequence in the HIV-1 RNA (Wei et al. 1998). This association between TAT, TAR and TAK/P-TEFb is believed to bring the catalytic subunit of TAK/P-TEFb in close proximity to Pol II where it hyperphosphorylates the CTD of Pol II .
In order for Rev to function, multiple molecules must bind sequentiallly to the RRE (Malim and Cullen 1991).
How the PIC finds favored sites on target DNA has not been fully clarified. Active genes are favored for integration, and favored sequences at the site of integration also influence the reaction. Studies of cells depeleted in PSIP1/LEDGF/p75 suggest that this protein acts as a tethering factor binding HIV PICs near integration target DNA. Access of PICs to sites on chromosomes may be significant, since centromeric alphoid repeats are disfavored for integration, perhaps due to wrapping in compact centromeric heterochromatin. Nucleosomes bound to the integration template also affect target site selection and integration complex binding.
Transesterification to connect viral DNA 3' ends to host DNA 5' ends
The first chemical step of integration involves a single step transesterification, in which the recessed 3' hydroxyl of the viral DNA becomes covalently joined to a protruding 5' end in the target DNA. This step at the same time cleaves the target DNA.
Gap repair completes provirus integration
The mechanism by which the integration reaction is completed has not been fully clarified. Unfolding of the integration intermediate resulting from the IN-catalyzed transesterification produces a branched DNA molecule. Denaturation of the host DNA between the points of joining produces DNA gaps at each host-virus DNA junction. How these gaps are repaired is unclear. Well studied host cell gap repair enzymes can carry out this repair step on model virus-host DNA junctions in vitro, providing candidate enzymes. However, efforts to show importance in vivo are complicated by the fact that the functions are either redundant or lethal when mutated. Because the strand transfer complex formed at the completion of integration is quite stable, there may be a requirement for a disassembly step to remove integrase and potentially other proteins to allow access of the gap repair machinery. In order to complete the last stages of integration, the viral proteins must be removed, and the gaps at the host virus DNA junctions repaired. The sequence in which the dissembly of PIC occus is not yet understood.
Rev molecules assemble onto the RRE RNA sequence through their ARM sequence
Nuclear export of the unspliced and partially spliced HIV-1 transcripts requires the association of the HIV-1 Rev protein with a cis-acting RNA sequence known as the Rev Response Element (RRE) located within the env gene. The RRE forms a stem loop structure that associates with an arginine-rich RNA binding motif (ARM) within Rev.
Gag is translated from the unspliced viral RNA on free ribosomes in the cytoplasm. The products of the pro and pol genes are also synthesized from the unspliced viral RNA, but never as parts of an independent polyprotein. They are initially contained within the Gag-Pro or Gag-Pro-Pol fusion protein, the product of translational readthrough
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Tat-containing early elongation complex with hyperphosphorylated Pol II CTD and phospho-NELF
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VPU is shuttled through the ER:Golgi protein expression pathway.
Once transported to the plasma membrane the VPU protein will be incorporated into the assembling virus. The Vpu accessory protein is found to be required for efficient virion release from some cell lines but completely dispensible in others.
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Assembling Gag molecules are largely derived from the rapidly diffusing cytoplasmic pool. Gag membrane targeting requires myristoylation and a subset of GAG molecules are shuttled to the plasma membrane in this way.
FUNCTION TFIIF is a general transcription initiation factor that binds to RNA polymerase II and helps to recruit it to the initiation complex in collaboration with TFIIB. It promotes transcription elongation. This subunit shows ATP-dependent DNA-helicase activity.CATALYTIC ACTIVITY ATP + H(2)O = ADP + phosphate.SUBUNIT Heterodimer of an alpha and a beta subunit. Interacts with HTATSF1 and GPBP1 (By similarity). Interacts with URI1.SIMILARITY Belongs to the TFIIF beta subunit family.
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Monoubiquitination of N-myristoyl GAG polyprotein
Cytosolic N-myristoyl Gag polyprotein is conjugated with a single molecule of ubiquitin. Conjugation is typically to one of two lysine residues in the p6 domain of Gag but can be to lysine residues in the MA, CA, NC, and SP2 domains of the protein. The specific host cell E2 and E3 proteins that mediate Gag ubiquitination have not been identified. The same studies that first identified the p6 ubiquitination sites in Gag also called the biological significance of Gag ubiquitination into question by demonstrating that Gag proteins in which the p6 ubiquitination sites had been removed by mutagenesis could still assemble efficiently into infectious viral particles (Ott et al. 1998, 2000). More recent work, however, has identified additional ubiquitination sites throughout the carboxyterminal region of the Gag polyprotein, and when all of these sites are removed by mutagenesis, both viral assembly involving the mutant Gag polyprotein and infectivity of the resulting viral particles are sharply reduced (Gottwein et al. 2006).
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Monoubiquitinated N-myristoyl GAG polyprotein is targeted to the late endosomal vesicle membrane by the ESCRT-I complex
Monoubiquitinated N-myristoyl Gag polyprotein associates with the ESCRT-1 complex at an endosomal membrane (Eastman et al. 2005; Martin-Serrano et al. 2003; Stuchell et al. 2004).
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N-myristoylation of GAG polyprotein by NMT2
The amino terminal glycine residue of HIV-1 Gag polyprotein is myristoylated (Henderson et al. 1992). Myristoylation of newly synthesized Gag occurs in the cytosol of the infected host cell, with myristoyl-CoA as the myristate donor and the host cell NMT2 enzyme as the catalyst. Human cells express two isoforms of N-myristoyl transferase (NMT) (Giang and Cravatt 1998). The argumant that the second isoform catalyzes this reaction is indirect, based on the the observations that a stable enzyme:substrate complex forms transiently during the reaction (Farazi et al. 2001), and that Gag polyprotein can be found complexed with NMT2 (but not NMT1) in HIV-1-infected human cells (Hill and Skowronski 2005).
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HIV-1 DNA integration: mechanism of viral DNA cleavage and DNA strand transfer
Identification of an intracellular trafficking and assembly pathway for HIV-1 gag
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Synthesis and organization of GAG, GAGPOL polyproteins
Synthesis And Processing Of GAG, GAGPOL Polyproteins
Evidence suggests that the RNA molecules used for the synthesis of Gag and Gag-Pro-Pol are not the same molecules that are packaged into virions. Gag proteins do not appear to aggregate around and capture the RNA contained in the polyribosome from which they emerged, but rather bind to and ultimately encapsidate free transcripts elsewhere. During the replication of retroviruses, large numbers of Gag molecules must be generated to serve as precursors to the structural proteins of the virions. Retroviruses have developed a mechanism that permits expression of the Gag protein at high levels relative to the protein sequences encoded in the pro and pol genes, while retaining coregulated expression. This linkage results from the use of the same initiation codon in the same mRNA to express the gag, pro, and pol genes. Translation of this RNA leads occasionally to synthesis of a fusion protein that is usually called the Gag-Pol precursor but is now more appropriately called the Gag-Pro-Pol precursor
FUNCTION Component of the DRB sensitivity-inducing factor complex (DSIF complex), which regulates mRNA processing and transcription elongation by RNA polymerase II. DSIF positively regulates mRNA capping by stimulating the mRNA guanylyltransferase activity of RNGTT/CAP1A. DSIF also acts cooperatively with the negative elongation factor complex (NELF complex) to enhance transcriptional pausing at sites proximal to the promoter. Transcriptional pausing may facilitate the assembly of an elongation competent RNA polymerase II complex. DSIF and NELF promote pausing by inhibition of the transcription elongation factor TFIIS/S-II. TFIIS/S-II binds to RNA polymerase II at transcription pause sites and stimulates the weak intrinsic nuclease activity of the enzyme. Cleavage of blocked transcripts by RNA polymerase II promotes the resumption of transcription from the new 3' terminus and may allow repeated attempts at transcription through natural pause sites. DSIF can also positively regulate transcriptional elongation and is required for the efficient activation of transcriptional elongation by the HIV-1 nuclear transcriptional activator, Tat. DSIF acts to suppress transcriptional pausing in transcripts derived from the HIV-1 LTR and blocks premature release of HIV-1 transcripts at terminator sequences.SUBUNIT Interacts with SUPT4H1 to form DSIF. DSIF interacts with the positive transcription elongation factor b complex (P-TEFb complex), which is composed of CDK9 and cyclin-T (CCNT1 or CCNT2). DSIF interacts with RNA polymerase II, and this interaction is reduced by phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of POLR2A by P-TEFb. DSIF also interacts with the NELF complex, which is composed of WHSC2/NELFA, COBRA1/NELFB, TH1L/NELFD and RDBP/NELFE, and this interaction occurs following prior binding of DSIF to RNA polymerase II. DSIF also interacts with PRMT1/HRMT1L2, HTATSF1/TATSF1, RNGTT/CAP1A, PRMT5/SKB1, SUPT6H, and can interact with PIN1. Component of a complex which is at least composed of HTATSF1/Tat-SF1, the P-TEFb complex components CDK9 and CCNT1, RNA polymerase II, SUPT5H, and NCL/nucleolin.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Ubiquitously expressed.PTM Methylated by PRMT1/HRMT1L2 and PRMT5/SKB1. Methylation negatively regulates interaction with P-TEFb and RNA polymerase II.PTM Phosphorylated by CDK7 and CDK9. Phosphorylation by P-TEFb alleviates transcriptional pausing and can stimulate transcriptional elongation from the HIV-1 LTR. P-TEFb dependent phosphorylation is stimulated by the HIV-1 Tat protein. Phosphorylation may also stimulate interaction with PIN1. Bulk phosphorylation occurs predominantly in mitosis.SIMILARITY Belongs to the SPT5 family.SIMILARITY Contains 5 KOW domains.
Retroviral DNA integration: ASLV, HIV, and MLV show distinct target site preferences
HIV-1 template:capped HIV-1 transcript hybrid
viral minus strand DNA with sticky 3' end
viral plus strand DNA with sticky 3' end
FUNCTION Ubiquitin exists either covalently attached to another protein, or free (unanchored). When covalently bound, it is conjugated to target proteins via an isopeptide bond either as a monomer (monoubiquitin), a polymer linked via different Lys residues of the ubiquitin (polyubiquitin chains) or a linear polymer linked via the initiator Met of the ubiquitin (linear polyubiquitin chains). Polyubiquitin chains, when attached to a target protein, have different functions depending on the Lys residue of the ubiquitin that is linked: Lys-6-linked may be involved in DNA repair; Lys-11-linked is involved in ERAD (endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation) and in cell-cycle regulation; Lys-29-linked is involved in lysosomal degradation; Lys-33-linked is involved in kinase modification; Lys-48-linked is involved in protein degradation via the proteasome; Lys-63-linked is involved in endocytosis, DNA-damage responses as well as in signaling processes leading to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa-B. Linear polymer chains formed via attachment by the initiator Met lead to cell signaling. Ubiquitin is usually conjugated to Lys residues of target proteins, however, in rare cases, conjugation to Cys or Ser residues has been observed. When polyubiquitin is free (unanchored-polyubiquitin), it also has distinct roles, such as in activation of protein kinases, and in signaling.MISCELLANEOUS Ubiquitin is encoded by 4 different genes. UBA52 and RPS27A genes code for a single copy of ubiquitin fused to the ribosomal proteins L40 and S27a, respectively. UBB and UBC genes code for a polyubiquitin precursor with exact head to tail repeats, the number of repeats differ between species and strains.MISCELLANEOUS For the sake of clarity sequence features are annotated only for the first chain, and are not repeated for each of the following chains.SIMILARITY Belongs to the ubiquitin family.SIMILARITY Contains 9 ubiquitin-like domains.
FUNCTION Ubiquitin exists either covalently attached to another protein, or free (unanchored). When covalently bound, it is conjugated to target proteins via an isopeptide bond either as a monomer (monoubiquitin), a polymer linked via different Lys residues of the ubiquitin (polyubiquitin chains) or a linear polymer linked via the initiator Met of the ubiquitin (linear polyubiquitin chains). Polyubiquitin chains, when attached to a target protein, have different functions depending on the Lys residue of the ubiquitin that is linked: Lys-6-linked may be involved in DNA repair; Lys-11-linked is involved in ERAD (endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation) and in cell-cycle regulation; Lys-29-linked is involved in lysosomal degradation; Lys-33-linked is involved in kinase modification; Lys-48-linked is involved in protein degradation via the proteasome; Lys-63-linked is involved in endocytosis, DNA-damage responses as well as in signaling processes leading to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa-B. Linear polymer chains formed via attachment by the initiator Met lead to cell signaling. Ubiquitin is usually conjugated to Lys residues of target proteins, however, in rare cases, conjugation to Cys or Ser residues has been observed. When polyubiquitin is free (unanchored-polyubiquitin), it also has distinct roles, such as in activation of protein kinases, and in signaling.MISCELLANEOUS Ubiquitin is encoded by 4 different genes. UBA52 and RPS27A genes code for a single copy of ubiquitin fused to the ribosomal proteins L40 and S27a, respectively. UBB and UBC genes code for a polyubiquitin precursor with exact head to tail repeats, the number of repeats differ between species and strains.MISCELLANEOUS The mRNA encoding variant UBB(+1) is produced by an unknown mechanism involving the deletion of a GT dinucleotide in the close proximity of a GAGAG motif (PubMed:9422699). This variant mRNA is found in normal brain, but the encoded protein accumulates only in brain neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques in Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies, as well as polyglutaminopathies (PubMed:14597671). UBB(+1) variant cannot be used for polyubiquitination, is not effectively degraded by the proteasome when ubiquitinated and ubiquitinated UBB(+1) is refractory to disassembly by deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs). In healthy brain, UBB(+1) C-terminus can be cleaved by UCHL3 (PubMed:21762696).MISCELLANEOUS For a better understanding, features related to ubiquitin are only indicated for the first chain.SIMILARITY Belongs to the ubiquitin family.SIMILARITY Contains 3 ubiquitin-like domains.
FUNCTION Component of the ESCRT-I complex, a regulator of vesicular trafficking process. Binds to ubiquitinated cargo proteins and is required for the sorting of endocytic ubiquitinated cargos into multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Mediates the association between the ESCRT-0 and ESCRT-I complex. Required for completion of cytokinesis; the function requires CEP55. May be involved in cell growth and differentiation. Acts as a negative growth regulator. Involved in the budding of many viruses through an interaction with viral proteins that contain a late-budding motif P-[ST]-A-P. This interaction is essential for viral particle budding of numerous retroviruses.SUBUNIT Component of the ESCRT-I complex (endosomal sorting complex required for transport I) which consists of TSG101, VPS28, a VPS37 protein (VPS37A to -D) and MVB12A or MVB12B in a 1:1:1:1 stoechiometry. Interacts with VPS37A, VPS37B and VPS37C. Interacts with ubiquitin, stathmin, GMCL, DMAP1 and AATF (By similarity). Interacts with HGS; the interaction mediates the association with the ESCRT-0 complex. Interacts with GGA1 and GGA3. Interacts (via UEV domain) with PDCD6IP/AIP1. Interacts with VPS28, SNF8 and VPS36. Self-associates. Interacts with MVB12A; the association appears to be mediated by the TSG101-VPS37 binary subcomplex. Interacts with VPS37D. Interacts with LRSAM1. Interacts with CEP55; the interaction is required for cytokinesis but not for viral budding. Interacts with PDCD6. Interacts with HIV-1 p6. Interacts with human spumavirus Gag. Interacts with HTLV-1 Gag. Interacts with Ebola virus VP40. Interacts with EIAV p9; the interaction has been shown in vitro. Interacts with MGRN1.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Heart, brain, placenta, lung, liver, skeletal, kidney and pancreas.DOMAIN The UEV domain is required for the interaction of the complex with ubiquitin. It also mediates the interaction with PTAP/PSAP motifs of HIV-1 P6 protein and human spumaretrovirus Gag protein.DOMAIN The coiled coil domain may interact with stathmin.DOMAIN The UEV domain binds ubiquitin and P-[ST]-A-P peptide motif independently.PTM Monoubiquitinated at multiple sites by LRSAM1 and by MGRN1. Ubiquitination inactivates it, possibly by regulating its shuttling between an active membrane-bound protein and an inactive soluble form. Ubiquitination by MGRN1 requires the presence of UBE2D1.SIMILARITY Belongs to the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme family. UEV subfamily.SIMILARITY Contains 1 SB (steadiness box) domain.SIMILARITY Contains 1 UEV (ubiquitin E2 variant) domain.
FUNCTION Essential component of the NELF complex, a complex that negatively regulates the elongation of transcription by RNA polymerase II. The NELF complex, which acts via an association with the DSIF complex and causes transcriptional pausing, is counteracted by the P-TEFb kinase complex.SUBUNIT The NELF complex is composed of NELFA, NELFB, NELFCD (isoform NELF-C or isoform NELF-D) and NELFE. Interacts with ARAF1.TISSUE SPECIFICITY Widely expressed. Expressed in heart, brain, lung, placenta, liver, skeletal and cardiac muscle, adrenal, thyroid, kidney and pancreas.SIMILARITY Belongs to the NELF-D family.
CATALYTIC ACTIVITY Nucleoside triphosphate + RNA(n) = diphosphate + RNA(n+1).SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits. Interacts with WDR82. Interacts with MEN1.SIMILARITY Belongs to the RNA polymerase beta chain family.
The HIV-1 viral protein R induces apoptosis via a direct effect on the mitochondrial permeability transition pore
SUBUNIT Component of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) complex consisting of 12 subunits.SIMILARITY Belongs to the archaeal RpoM/eukaryotic RPA12/RPB9/RPC11 RNA polymerase family.SIMILARITY Contains 1 TFIIS-type zinc finger.
MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).SIMILARITY Belongs to the HIV-1 VPR protein family.
FUNCTION Counteracts the innate antiviral activity of human APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G. Forms a complex with host APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G thus preventing the entry of these lethally hypermutating enzymes into progeny virions. Recruits an active E3 ubiquitin ligase complex composed of elongin BC, CUL5, and RBX2 to induce polyubiquitination of APOBEC3G and APOBEC3F. In turn, they are directed to the 26S proteasome for degradation. Vif interaction with APOBEC3G also blocks its cytidine deaminase activity in a proteasome-independent manner, suggesting a dual inhibitory mechanism. May interact directly with APOBEC3G mRNA in order to inhibit its translation. Seems to play a role in viral morphology by affecting the stability of the viral nucleoprotein core. Finally, Vif also contributes to the G2 cell cycle arrest observed in HIV infected cells.SUBUNIT Homomultimer; in vitro and presumably in vivo. Interacts with viral RNA and Pr55Gag precursor; these interactions mediate Vif incorporation into the virion. Interacts with the viral reverse transcriptase. Interacts with human APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G. Interacts with host UBCE7IP1 isoform 3/ZIN and possibly with SAT. Interacts with host tyrosine kinases HCK and FYN; these interactions may decrease level of phosphorylated APOBEC3G incorporation into virions. Interacts with host ABCE1; this interaction may play a role in protecting viral RNA from damage during viral assembly. Forms an E3 ligase complex by interacting with human CUL5 and elongin BC complex (TCEB1 and TCEB2). Interacts with host MDM2; this interaction targets Vif for degradation by the proteasome.INDUCTION Expressed late during infection in a Rev-dependent manner.PTM Highly phosphorylated on serines and threonines residues. Thr-96 and Ser-165 are phosphorylated by the mitogen activated kinase MAP4K1. As the HIV-1 replication can be activated by stress and mitogens, these phosphorylations could be involved in this process. Ser-144 phosphorylation may inhibit elongin BC complex binding.MISCELLANEOUS Required for replication in 'nonpermissive' cells, including primary T-cells, macrophages and certain T-cell lines, but is dispensable for replication in 'permissive' cell lines, such as 293T cells. In nonpermissive cells, Vif-defective viruses can produce virions, but they fail to complete reverse transcription and cannot successfully infect new cells.MISCELLANEOUS Vif-defective viruses show catastrophic failure in reverse transcription due to APOBEC-induced mutations that initiate a DNA base repair pathway and compromise the structural integrity of the ssDNA. In the absence of Vif, the virion is morphologically abnormal.MISCELLANEOUS HIV-1 lineages are divided in three main groups, M (for Major), O (for Outlier), and N (for New, or Non-M, Non-O). The vast majority of strains found worldwide belong to the group M. Group O seems to be endemic to and largely confined to Cameroon and neighboring countries in West Central Africa, where these viruses represent a small minority of HIV-1 strains. The group N is represented by a limited number of isolates from Cameroonian persons. The group M is further subdivided in 9 clades or subtypes (A to D, F to H, J and K).SIMILARITY Belongs to the primate lentivirus group Vif protein family.
Synthesis, Assembly, and Processing of Viral Proteins
monoubiquitinated N-myristoyl GAG (P04591) protein
Phosphorylated (Ser5) CTD of RNA pol II largest subunit
A second mammalian N-myristoyltransferase
gene ontology term for cellular function
Retroviral cDNA integration: mechanism, applications and inhibition.(Ed) Setlow JK
Genetic Engineering Principles and Methods 20:41-62
Database identifier. Use this URL to connect to the web page of this instance in Reactome: http://www.reactome.org/cgi-bin/eventbrowser?DB=gk_current&ID=939232
IN:viral DNA bound to host genomic DNA with staggered ends
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Reactome stable identifier. Use this URL to connect to the web page of this instance in Reactome: http://www.reactome.org/cgi-bin/eventbrowser_st_id?ST_ID=REACT_24765.2
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RNA Polymerase II holoenzyme complex (hyperphosphorylated)
RNA Polymerase II holoenzyme complex (hyperphosphorylated):TFIIF complex
IN bound to sticky 3' ends of viral DNA in PIC
Tat-containing early elongation complex with hyperphosphorylated Pol II CTD ( phospho-NELF phospho DSIF)